Analytical Methods | Microscopy (Microstructure of Milk Constituents and Products)

Cover\n......Page 1
Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences Second Edition......Page 2
Copyright\n......Page 5
Editors’ Biographies\n......Page 6
Editorial Advisory Board\n......Page 8
Contributors\n......Page 10
Guide to Use of the Encyclopedia \n......Page 28
Preface\n......Page 30
Foreword\n......Page 32
Contents\n......Page 34
A Brief History of the OIE......Page 50
Structure of the OIE......Page 51
OIE Mandate......Page 52
Standard Setting Procedures and Publication of International Animal Health Codes......Page 55
Conclusion......Page 56
Relevant Websites......Page 57
Market Trends......Page 58
International Organic Standards Comparisons......Page 59
Further Reading\n......Page 63
Packaging \n......Page 0
Purpose of Packaging of Dairy Products......Page 65
Packaging of Dairy Products......Page 66
Powder Milk......Page 68
Cheese......Page 69
Trends and New Concepts......Page 70
Further Reading\n......Page 72
Characteristics......Page 73
Milk-Borne Illness......Page 75
Incidence in Dairy Products......Page 76
Source......Page 77
See also......Page 78
Further Reading\n......Page 79
Characteristics......Page 80
Animal Brucellosis......Page 83
Human Brucellosis......Page 84
Diagnosis of Animal Brucellosis......Page 85
Control......Page 86
Further Reading\n......Page 87
Detection of Campylobacter in Milk......Page 89
Molecular Characterization of Campylobacter......Page 91
Campylobacter and Disease......Page 92
Control of Milk Quality at Pre- and Postharvest Phases......Page 93
Further Reading\n......Page 95
Pathogenesis of Clostridium spp. Contaminating Dairy Foods......Page 96
Significance of Clostridium spp. in Dairy Foods......Page 98
Detection and Enumeration of Clostridium spp.......Page 100
Control......Page 101
Further Reading\n......Page 102
Characteristics......Page 103
Coxiella burnetii in Milk......Page 104
Reservoirs and Routes of Infection......Page 105
Prevention......Page 106
Further Reading\n......Page 107
Pathogenic Types of E. coli......Page 109
Growth and Survival......Page 111
Milk and Cream......Page 113
Further Reading\n......Page 114
Significance in Milk and Dairy Foods......Page 116
Control......Page 118
Further Reading\n......Page 119
Resistance......Page 121
Prevalence and Distribution......Page 122
Clinical Relevance......Page 124
Isolation, Identification, and Subtyping......Page 125
Conclusions and Future Perspectives......Page 128
Further Reading\n......Page 129
Characteristics of Listeria spp.......Page 130
Outbreaks......Page 131
Incidence and Behavior in Milk and Dairy Products......Page 133
Control......Page 134
Further Reading\n......Page 135
Mycobacterium bovis......Page 136
Nontuberculous Mycobacteria......Page 137
Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis......Page 138
Mycobacterial Contamination of Milk......Page 139
Prevalence of Mycobacteria in Dairy Herds......Page 140
Further Reading\n......Page 141
Incidence of Salmonella in Milk and Dairy Products......Page 142
Sources......Page 144
Salmonellosis in Humans......Page 145
Further Reading\n......Page 147
Pathogenesis......Page 148
Outbreaks......Page 149
Detection, Enumeration, and Identification Methods......Page 150
Further Reading\n......Page 151
Relevant Websites......Page 152
Colonization: Bacterial and Host Factors......Page 153
Evasins......Page 154
Toxins......Page 156
Antibiotic Resistance......Page 157
Further Reading\n......Page 158
Characteristics......Page 160
Source......Page 161
Pathogenicity......Page 162
Incidence in Milk and Dairy Products......Page 163
Control......Page 164
Further Reading\n......Page 165
Yersinia enterocolitica......Page 166
Serotyping and Biotyping......Page 167
Clinical Disease......Page 168
Occurrence of Yersinia enterocolitica in Milk and Dairy Products......Page 169
Isolation and Detection of Yersinia enterocolitica in Food and Environmental Samples......Page 170
Further Reading\n......Page 171
Introduction......Page 173
Equipment Selection......Page 174
Utilities......Page 176
Sanitary Design......Page 179
Environmental Constraints......Page 180
Further Reading\n......Page 182
Construction Materials......Page 183
Stainless Steel......Page 184
Other Metals......Page 185
Surface Finish......Page 186
Relevant Websites......Page 187
Principles of Calculation......Page 188
Net Positive Suction Head......Page 191
Further Reading\n......Page 192
General Classification......Page 194
Centrifugal Pumps......Page 195
Positive Displacement Pumps......Page 196
Summary of Pump Selection Criteria......Page 199
Further Reading\n......Page 200
Valve Flow Design......Page 201
Valve Actuation......Page 203
Valves in Dairy Processing......Page 204
See also......Page 207
Further Reading\n......Page 208
Types of Agitators......Page 209
Mechanical Design......Page 210
Hygienic Design......Page 211
Agitator Selection and Sizing......Page 212
Applications......Page 213
Further Reading\n......Page 214
The Basics of Centrifugal Separation......Page 215
Design Features......Page 216
Centrifuges for Dairy Applications......Page 220
Further Reading\n......Page 222
Introduction......Page 224
Applications of Disk Bowl Centrifuges......Page 225
Applications of Decanter Centrifuges......Page 229
Cyclone Separators......Page 230
Further Reading\n......Page 232
Heat Transfer......Page 233
The Heat Exchanger......Page 234
Further Reading\n......Page 241
Heat Treatment Conditions Used for the Pasteurization of Milk......Page 242
Principle of Operation of an HTST Pasteurizer......Page 243
Testing for Milk Pasteurization......Page 247
Further Reading\n......Page 248
Operation......Page 249
Evaporators in the Dairy Industry......Page 254
Further Reading\n......Page 256
Spray Drying......Page 257
Stickiness and Glass Transition......Page 262
Further Reading\n......Page 264
Drying Chamber......Page 265
Hot Air System and Air Distribution......Page 266
Feed System......Page 271
Atomizing Device......Page 273
Powder Separation System......Page 274
Final Drying and Cooling of Powder......Page 279
Fines Return System......Page 281
Further Reading\n......Page 282
Basics of Plant Automation......Page 283
Measurement Instrumentation......Page 284
Final Control Elements......Page 286
Digital Control Equipment......Page 287
Advanced Topics......Page 289
Further Reading\n......Page 290
Classical Closed-Loop Process Control - Established Control Engineering Practice......Page 291
Statistical Process Control......Page 292
Intelligent Control......Page 295
Fuzzy Logic Control System......Page 296
Model-Based Predictive Control......Page 297
Further Reading\n......Page 299
Milking Robots......Page 301
Palletizing Robots......Page 303
Relevant Websites......Page 305
Standard Reduction Potential......Page 306
Thermodynamics of Corrosion......Page 307
Kinetics of Corrosion......Page 308
Types of Corrosion......Page 309
Further Reading\n......Page 311
Introduction......Page 312
Operational Improvements......Page 313
Process Engineering Improvements......Page 315
Further Reading\n......Page 320
Relevant Websites\n......Page 321
The Principles of the Taguchi Method......Page 322
Six Sigma......Page 324
Further Reading\n......Page 325
Formal Safety Analysis......Page 326
Definition of Risk......Page 327
Risk Assessment......Page 328
Risk Reduction and Risk Mitigation......Page 330
Further Reading\n......Page 331
Outline of a CIP System......Page 332
Application in Dairy Equipment......Page 333
Further Reading\n......Page 334
Objectives and Instruments in Agricultural Policy......Page 335
High and Low Price Systems......Page 336
Consequences of High and Low Price Systems......Page 338
Market Price Subsidy......Page 340
Future Developments......Page 341
Further Reading\n......Page 342
Financing of the CAP......Page 344
The Price and Intervention Scheme for Milk and Dairy Products......Page 345
The Milk Quota Scheme......Page 346
CAP Reform (Mid-Term Review) 2003......Page 347
Further Reading\n......Page 348
Border Measures for Dairy Products......Page 349
Federal Price Supports for Dairy Industry......Page 351
Final Remarks......Page 353
Further Reading\n......Page 354
Canada......Page 355
Japan......Page 357
Australia......Page 358
New Zealand......Page 359
Relevant Websites......Page 360
The Establishment......Page 361
Purpose and Organization......Page 362
The Codex Step Procedure......Page 363
Application and Role of Codex Texts......Page 365
Codex Texts Relevant for Dairy Production and Trade......Page 368
Further Reading\n......Page 370
Role of Identity Standards......Page 371
Standard Setting......Page 372
Codex Milk Product Standards......Page 374
Further Reading\n......Page 379
Harmonized System Committee......Page 380
Dairy Products in the Harmonized System......Page 381
Classification Principles......Page 382
Classification Examples......Page 383
Dairy Products......Page 384
Relevant Websites......Page 385
National Treatment Clause......Page 387
Non-tariff Barriers......Page 388
Agricultural Agreement......Page 390
Traffic-Light Model - GATT Boxes and Decoupled Support......Page 391
Trade in Dairy Products......Page 392
Further Reading\n......Page 393
Doha Round in the Context of WTO Negotiations......Page 394
Implications of the Doha Round for the Dairy Sector......Page 396
Global Market Changes and Prospects......Page 397
Conclusions......Page 401
References......Page 402
What Are Prebiotic Effects?......Page 403
Classification and Terminology of Dietary Carbohydrates......Page 404
Disaccharides......Page 406
Oligosaccharides......Page 407
Polysaccharides......Page 412
Further Reading\n......Page 413
Definition of Prebiotics......Page 414
Composition of the Human Gut Microflora and Health......Page 415
Fermentation of Prebiotic Carbohydrates in the Large Intestine......Page 416
Physiological Effects......Page 418
Conclusion and Perspectives......Page 419
Further Reading\n......Page 420
Taxonomy......Page 421
Morphological and Physiological Characteristics......Page 422
Arthrobacter Species......Page 424
Arthrobacter in Milk and Dairy Products......Page 425
See also......Page 426
Further Reading\n......Page 427
Sources of Pseudomonas spp. in Milk......Page 428
Consequences of Growth of Pseudomonads in Raw Milk......Page 429
Extracellular Enzymes......Page 430
Enumeration......Page 431
Further Reading\n......Page 432
Growth at Refrigeration Temperatures......Page 433
Incidence of Genera Other than Pseudomonas in Raw and Pasteurized Milk......Page 435
Thermoduric Psychrotrophs and Extended Shelf-Life Dairy Products......Page 437
Further Reading\n......Page 438
Introduction......Page 439
Rate of Gain......Page 440
Further Reading\n......Page 443
Liquid Diets for Calves......Page 445
Liquid-Feeding Programs......Page 447
Practical Management of Milk-Feeding Programs......Page 449
Calf Starters for Preweaned Dairy Calves......Page 450
Further Reading\n......Page 451
Managing the Transition Calf......Page 452
Conclusion......Page 457
Relevant Websites......Page 458
Age at First Calving......Page 459
Reproductive Cycle and Breeding Standards......Page 460
Management of Breeding......Page 461
Parturition......Page 464
Further Reading\n......Page 465
Precalving and Calving Management......Page 466
Biosecurity......Page 467
External Parasites......Page 468
Further Reading\n......Page 469
Characteristics and Importance......Page 470
Review of the Reproductive Endocrinology of the Female......Page 471
Development of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Ovarian System......Page 472
Timing of Puberty Onset......Page 474
Further Reading\n......Page 476
Follicular Growth and Development......Page 477
Endocrine Regulation of Ovarian Function......Page 478
Luteolysis of the Corpus Luteum......Page 480
Conclusions......Page 481
Further Reading\n......Page 482
Postpartum Follicular Growth......Page 483
Mechanisms Associated with Ovulatory and Nonovulatory Postpartum Follicles......Page 484
Ovarian Follicular Cysts (Cysts)......Page 486
Further Reading\n......Page 488
Strategies and Theories for the Seasonal Regulation of Reproduction......Page 489
Endocrine and Neuroendocrine Regulation of Reproduction in Seasonal Breeders......Page 491
Artificial Manipulation of Seasonal Breeders......Page 492
Seasonal Breeding in Domesticated and Semidomesticated Multipurpose (Meat and Dairy) Livestock......Page 493
Further Reading\n......Page 496
Estrus Control Using Progestogens......Page 497
Estrus Control Using Prostaglandin......Page 498
Combination Treatment Programs......Page 500
Treatment of Noncyclic Cows......Page 501
Further Reading\n......Page 502
Lactating Dairy Cattle......Page 503
Timed Artificial Insemination for Dairy Heifers......Page 507
Further Reading\n......Page 508
Automated Systems to Detect Physical Activity......Page 510
Factors That Affect Estrous Behavior......Page 513
Estrus Detection and Prediction of Ovulation and Time of Insemination......Page 514
Further Reading\n......Page 515
Landmarks in the Development of Artificial Insemination Facilities......Page 516
Procedures for Artificial Insemination......Page 517
Use and Efficiency of Artificial Insemination in the United States......Page 518
Effect of Genomic Evaluations on Artificial Insemination Utilization......Page 519
Selection and Mating Based upon Multiple Traits......Page 520
Advanced Reproductive Technologies in Artificial Insemination......Page 521
Use of Artificial Insemination in Species other than Cattle......Page 522
Further Reading\n......Page 523
Reproductive Targets......Page 524
Conclusion......Page 532
Further Reading\n......Page 533
In the Beginning......Page 534
Nutrition of the Conceptus......Page 536
Pregnancy Diagnosis......Page 538
Further Reading\n......Page 541
Preimplantation Period......Page 542
Maintenance of the Corpus Luteum......Page 545
Role of Progesterone......Page 547
Placental Function......Page 548
Immunology of Pregnancy......Page 550
Further Reading\n......Page 551
Duration of Pregnancy......Page 552
Fetal Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis......Page 553
Maternal Endocrine Changes and Myometrial Activity......Page 556
Cervical Ripening and Expulsion of the Fetus......Page 558
Stages of Labor......Page 559
Complications (Dystocia and Retained Placentas)......Page 560
Further Reading\n......Page 561
Lactation......Page 563
Energy Status, Body Condition Score and Reproductive Performance......Page 564
Periparturient Disorders Milk Fever (Parturient Paresis)......Page 565
Left Displacement of Abomasum (LDA)......Page 566
Further Reading\n......Page 568
Milks and Creams......Page 569
Sweetened Condensed Milk and Dulce De Leche......Page 575
Yogurt......Page 576
Fresh Cheeses......Page 579
Further Reading\n......Page 580
Purpose and Role......Page 581
Risk Assessment......Page 582
Risk Management......Page 584
Further Reading\n......Page 587
Common Pests in Dairy Plants and Ways to Control Them......Page 589
Pests of Stored Products......Page 592
Further Reading\n......Page 593
Milk Composition and Properties Relevant to Component Standardization......Page 594
Technological Principles of Fat Standardization......Page 595
Sensory, Nutritional, and Technological Properties of Protein-Standardized Products......Page 596
Regulatory Aspects and Current Status of Protein and Fat Standardization......Page 597
Further Reading\n......Page 598
Heat Loss......Page 599
Nutrient Requirements......Page 600
Dry Cows......Page 601
Summary......Page 602
Further Reading\n......Page 603
Ventilation......Page 604
Barn Ventilation - Construction and Management......Page 607
Summary......Page 608
Further Reading\n......Page 609
Heat Stress Effects on Cow Performance......Page 610
Conclusion......Page 614
Further Reading\n......Page 615
Actions of Heat Stress on the Female......Page 616
Actions of Heat Stress on the Male......Page 618
Management to Reduce the Effects of Heat Stress......Page 619
Further Reading\n......Page 622
Endocrine Pathways Associated with Stress and Reproduction......Page 624
Common Stressors and Their Effects on Reproduction in Dairy Cattle......Page 626
Further Reading\n......Page 630
Generating Drinking Water for the Dairy Industry......Page 631
Disinfection and Sanitization of DWSs......Page 633
Guidelines for DWS Design and Operation......Page 635
Further Reading\n......Page 636
Properties of Water and Steam......Page 638
General Classification of Steam Boilers......Page 639
Combustion......Page 640
Calculation of Boiler Efficiency......Page 641
Design of Steam Piping Systems......Page 642
Further Reading\n......Page 643
Vapor Compression Cycle......Page 645
Refrigeration Systems......Page 647
Refrigerants......Page 648
Further Reading\n......Page 650
Rotary Compressors......Page 651
Dynamic Compressors......Page 652
Ideal versus Real Reciprocating Cycles......Page 653
Compression Evolution......Page 654
Compressor Efficiency Calculations......Page 655
Basic Control Techniques......Page 656
Design of Compressed Air Piping Systems......Page 657
Further Reading\n......Page 658
Energy Management and Usage......Page 659
Electric Motors......Page 660
Further Reading\n......Page 661
Analytical Indices for Wastewater Pollution......Page 662
Quantities of Pollutants......Page 664
Environmental Evaluation......Page 665
Steps Toward a Reduced Effluent Pollution......Page 666
Further Reading\n......Page 667
Prevention and Control of Pollution......Page 668
Pretreatment and Preliminary Treatment Processes......Page 669
Biological Treatment Processes......Page 671
Biological Filtration......Page 673
Anaerobic Processes......Page 676
Stabilization of Sludge......Page 677
Further Reading......Page 679
Farm Level......Page 680
Environmental Impact of Dairy Processing......Page 682
Further Reading\n......Page 684
Historical Background......Page 685
Sources of Vitamins......Page 686
Further Reading\n......Page 687
General Features of Vitamin A and Carotenoids......Page 688
Metabolism of Vitamin A and Carotenoids in Dairy Cattle......Page 689
Factors that Influence the Concentration of Vitamin A and beta-Carotene in Milk......Page 691
Effects of Processing Conditions on Vitamin A and beta-Carotene Content of Milk and Dairy Products......Page 692
Nutritional Issues......Page 693
Further Reading\n......Page 694
Chemistry......Page 695
Absorption and Metabolism......Page 696
Metabolic Functions......Page 697
Factors Affecting Vitamin D Requirements......Page 698
Hypervitaminosis D......Page 699
Relevant Websites......Page 700
Chemistry......Page 701
Dietary Sources......Page 702
Vitamin E as an Antioxidant......Page 703
Vitamin E and Low-Density Lipoprotein Modification......Page 705
Vitamin E and Cardiovascular Disease......Page 706
Vitamin E and Cancer......Page 707
Vitamin E Status and Requirements......Page 708
Further Reading\n......Page 709
Dietary Sources of Vitamin K......Page 710
Metabolic Function of Vitamin K......Page 711
Vitamin K and Health......Page 712
Vitamin K Status and Requirements......Page 714
Further Reading\n......Page 715
Chemistry......Page 716
Dietary Sources......Page 717
Absorption, Metabolism, and Excretion......Page 718
Biological Functions......Page 719
Ascorbate and Cardiovascular Disease......Page 721
Vitamin C Status and Requirements......Page 722
Further Reading\n......Page 723
Cobalamin Deficiencies......Page 724
Further Reading\n......Page 726
Introduction......Page 727
Folates in Dairy Products......Page 729
Further Reading......Page 735
Biotin Deficiencies......Page 736
Further Reading\n......Page 738
Sources for Niacin......Page 739
Niacin Deficiencies......Page 740
Further Reading\n......Page 741
Pantothenic Acid Deficiencies......Page 743
Further Reading\n......Page 745
Functions of Vitamin B6......Page 746
Sources of Vitamin B6......Page 747
Further Reading\n......Page 748
Sources of Thiamine......Page 750
Thiamine Deficiencies......Page 751
Further Reading\n......Page 752
Sources of Riboflavin......Page 753
Riboflavin Deficiency......Page 754
Further Reading\n......Page 755
Properties of Water and Water Activity......Page 756
Water Sorption......Page 757
Water in Milk Solids and Dairy Powders......Page 758
Frozen Dairy Products and Ice Cream......Page 760
Water and Microbiological Stability......Page 761
Further Reading\n......Page 762
Definition and Significance of WaterActivity......Page 764
Principles of Measurement......Page 772
Further Reading......Page 775
Philosophers, Activists and PoliticalAction......Page 776
Dairy Cattle, Animal Welfare andManagement Issues......Page 777
Further Reading......Page 779
Whey Types and Composition......Page 780
Industrial Technologies Used in the Processing of Whey and UF Permeates......Page 781
Whey Beverages......Page 782
Whey Cheeses......Page 783
Utilization of Whey as a Fermentation Substrate for Food or Nonfood Applications......Page 784
Nutritional and Nutraceutical Aspects of Whey Utilization......Page 785
Further Reading\n......Page 786
Electrodialysis......Page 787
Ion Exchange......Page 788
Further Reading......Page 792
Raw and Market Milk......Page 793
Ice Cream and Frozen Yogurt......Page 794
Cultured Milk Products......Page 797
Cheese and Brine......Page 798
Further Reading......Page 801
\nRecent History of the Genus Kluyveromyces......Page 803
Current Status of the Genus \nKluyveromyces......Page 805
\n......Page 808
Recent Advances in Genomic Studies of \nKluyveromyces lactis and Kluyveromycesmarxianus......Page 809
Lactose Metabolism, a Salient \nCharacteristic of Kluyveromyces spp.......Page 810
The Potential Biotechnological Applications of Kluyveromyces Yeasts\n......Page 811
Further Reading......Page 812
Relevant Websites......Page 813
Morphology and Physiology......Page 814
Physiological Adaptation to Freezing Stress......Page 815
Biochemical Characteristics......Page 817
Applications......Page 818
Enumeration......Page 819
Further Reading\n......Page 820
Physiological Factors Affecting Growth of the Fungus......Page 821
Genetics......Page 822
Mycotoxins Produced by Penicillium roqueforti......Page 823
Further Reading\n......Page 824
Growth Characteristics of Penicillium camemberti......Page 825
Penicillium camemberti and Cheese Flavor......Page 826
Penicillium camemberti in Other Food-Related Applications......Page 827
Further Reading\n......Page 828
Molds Involved in the Spoilage of Dairy Products......Page 829
Control of Mold Growth in Dairy Products......Page 830
Toxic Metabolites Produced by Molds in Dairy Products......Page 831
See also......Page 832
Further Reading\n......Page 833
Morphology......Page 834
Physiological Factors Affecting Growth of the Fungus......Page 835
Naturally Occurring Preservatives......Page 837
Effects of Physical Agents......Page 839
Further Reading\n......Page 840
Carcinogenic Mycotoxins......Page 841
Neurotropic Mycotoxins......Page 844
Other Mycotoxins......Page 847
Further Reading\n......Page 848
Biosynthesis......Page 850
Mutagenicity......Page 851
Metabolism and Mechanism of Toxicity......Page 852
Effects on Cattle......Page 853
Regulation......Page 854
Determination......Page 855
Occurrence in Foods and Feedstuffs......Page 856
Sterigmatocystin......Page 857
Further Reading\n......Page 859
Glossary\n......Page 862
Index\n......Page 882